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Photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) widely used in neutrino detectors are critical to reconstructing the direction of the neutrino accurately. Large photocathode coverage, compact design and good time properties for single-photoelectron light are essential performances to meet the requirements for the next generation detectors. Therefore, a novel digital optical module housing 31 3-inch. diameter PMTs is developed. In order to maximize the effective photocathode area and improve the time performance, a modified PMT with a larger photocathode area and 10 dynodes is optimized with the aid of the CST Particle Studio in this paper. Based on the Monte Carlo method and finite integration theory, the main characteristics of the modified PMT, such as uniformity, collection efficiency, gain and transit-time spread, are investigated. As the earlier stages of the PMT contribute the greatest weight to the total transit time spread, the transit time spread of single-photoelectron from photocathode to the first dynode (TTSCD1) is discussed mainly in this paper. The influences of the dynodes position on collection efficiency and TTSCD1 are analyzed. The voltage ratio scheme is also optimized slightly to obtain better collection efficiency and minimum TTSCD1. By tracing the trajectories of secondary electrons from the first to the second dynode stage, dynodes are optimized for improving timing performance and secondary electrons collection efficiency. Direct collection efficiency of secondary electrons from the first dynode to the second is improved from 56.38% to 61.01%. The effective photocathode diameter of the modified PMT is increased from traditional 72 mm to 77.5 mm and the effective area of photocathode is increased by 30.87% compared with the traditional one. What is more, the length of the new PMT is reduced to 103 mm so that the available space of the multi-PMT digital optical module is increased by 63.09% compared with the traditional one containing the high-voltage power supplies, front-end and readout electronics, refrigerating equipment, etc. The simulation results show that the mean collection efficiency of the modified PMT is ~96.40% with the supply voltage of 1000 V and it changes little by changing the supply voltage from 900 V to 1300 V. The mean transit time spread from photocathode to the first dynode is ~1 ns which is better than the transit time spread of the traditional model. And the gain can reach above 106 with a supply voltage of above 1100 V.
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Keywords:
- neutrino detector /
- photomultiplier tube /
- effective photocathode area /
- transit time spread
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[2] Araki T, Enomoto S, Furuno K, et al. 2005Nature 436 499
[3] Cao J 2014Sci. Sin.:Phys. Mech. Astron. 44 1025(in Chinese)[曹俊2014中国科学:物理学力学天文学44 1025]
[4] Fukuda S, Fukuda Y, Hayakawa T, et al. 2003Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A 501 418
[5] Katz U F, Spiering C 2012Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys. 67 651
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[7] Kooijman P, Berbee E, de-Boer R, Rookhuizen H B, Heine E, Hogenbirk J, deJong M, Kok H, Korporaal A, Mos S, Mul G, Peek H, Timmer P, Werneke P, deWolf E 2011Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A 626 S139
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[11] Adrian-Martinez S, Ageron M, Aharonian F, et al. 2014Eur. Phys. J. C 74 3056
[12] Aiello S, Classen L, Giordano V, et al. 20146th International Workshop on Very Large Volume Neutrino Telescopes Stockholm, Sweden, August 5-13, 2013 p118
[13] Bormuth R, Classen L, Kalekin O, et al. 20146th International Workshop on Very Large Volume Neutrino Telescopes Stockholm, Sweden, August 5-13, 2013 p114
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[15] CST Particle Studio, Computer Simulation Technology Corporation https://www.cst.com/Products/CSTPS[2016-07-12]
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[17] Fen K S, Lu W Z, Zhu Z H 2005Shanxi Electron. Technol. 06 43(in Chinese)[冯奎胜, 卢万铮, 朱章虎2005山西电子技术06 43]
[18] Tian J S, Zhao B S, Wu J J, Zhao W, Liu Y Q, Zhang J 2006Acta Phys. Sin. 55 3368(in Chinese)[田进寿, 赵宝升, 吴建军, 赵卫, 刘运全, 张杰2006 55 3368]
[19] Furman M A, Pivi M T F 2002Phys. Rev. ST Accel. Beams 5 124404
[20] Zhou R M 2015Photoelectric Emission, Secondary Electron Emission and Photomultiplier Tube (1st Ed.) (Chengdu:University of Electronic Science and Technology of China Press) p127(in Chinese)[周荣楣2015光电发射、次级电子发射与光电倍增管(第一版) (成都:电子科技大学出版社)第127页]
[21] Suzuki A, Mori M, Kaneyuki K, Tanimori T, Takeuchi J, Kyushimaand H, Ohashi Y 1993Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A 329 299
[22] Flyckt S O, Marmonier C 2002Photomultiplier Tubes-Principles and Applications (2nd Ed.) (Brive:Photonis) p14
[23] Hamamatsu Photonics K. K. 2007Photomultiplier Tubes Basics and Applications (3rd Ed.) (Hamamatsu:Hamamatsu Photonics K. K. Electron Tube Division) p45
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[1] Fukuda Y, Hayakawa T, Ichihara E, et al. 1998Phys. Rev. Lett. 81 1158
[2] Araki T, Enomoto S, Furuno K, et al. 2005Nature 436 499
[3] Cao J 2014Sci. Sin.:Phys. Mech. Astron. 44 1025(in Chinese)[曹俊2014中国科学:物理学力学天文学44 1025]
[4] Fukuda S, Fukuda Y, Hayakawa T, et al. 2003Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A 501 418
[5] Katz U F, Spiering C 2012Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys. 67 651
[6] Hasankiadeh Q D, Kavatsyuk O, Lohner H, Peek H, Steijger J 2013Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A 725 158
[7] Kooijman P, Berbee E, de-Boer R, Rookhuizen H B, Heine E, Hogenbirk J, deJong M, Kok H, Korporaal A, Mos S, Mul G, Peek H, Timmer P, Werneke P, deWolf E 2011Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A 626 S139
[8] Katz U F 20146th International Workshop on Very Large Volume Neutrino Telescopes Stockholm, Sweden, August 5-13, 2013 p38
[9] Aiello S, Leonora E, Ameli F, et al. 2013J. Instrum. 8 07001
[10] Kavatsyuk O, Dorosti-Hasankiadeh Q, Lohner H 2012Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A 695 338
[11] Adrian-Martinez S, Ageron M, Aharonian F, et al. 2014Eur. Phys. J. C 74 3056
[12] Aiello S, Classen L, Giordano V, et al. 20146th International Workshop on Very Large Volume Neutrino Telescopes Stockholm, Sweden, August 5-13, 2013 p118
[13] Bormuth R, Classen L, Kalekin O, et al. 20146th International Workshop on Very Large Volume Neutrino Telescopes Stockholm, Sweden, August 5-13, 2013 p114
[14] Leskovar B, Lo C C 1975Nucl. Instrum. Meth. 123 145
[15] CST Particle Studio, Computer Simulation Technology Corporation https://www.cst.com/Products/CSTPS[2016-07-12]
[16] Hamamatsu Photonics K. K. 2007Photomultiplier Tubes Basics and Applications (3rd Ed.) (Hamamatsu:Hamamatsu Photonics K. K. Electron Tube Division) p44
[17] Fen K S, Lu W Z, Zhu Z H 2005Shanxi Electron. Technol. 06 43(in Chinese)[冯奎胜, 卢万铮, 朱章虎2005山西电子技术06 43]
[18] Tian J S, Zhao B S, Wu J J, Zhao W, Liu Y Q, Zhang J 2006Acta Phys. Sin. 55 3368(in Chinese)[田进寿, 赵宝升, 吴建军, 赵卫, 刘运全, 张杰2006 55 3368]
[19] Furman M A, Pivi M T F 2002Phys. Rev. ST Accel. Beams 5 124404
[20] Zhou R M 2015Photoelectric Emission, Secondary Electron Emission and Photomultiplier Tube (1st Ed.) (Chengdu:University of Electronic Science and Technology of China Press) p127(in Chinese)[周荣楣2015光电发射、次级电子发射与光电倍增管(第一版) (成都:电子科技大学出版社)第127页]
[21] Suzuki A, Mori M, Kaneyuki K, Tanimori T, Takeuchi J, Kyushimaand H, Ohashi Y 1993Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A 329 299
[22] Flyckt S O, Marmonier C 2002Photomultiplier Tubes-Principles and Applications (2nd Ed.) (Brive:Photonis) p14
[23] Hamamatsu Photonics K. K. 2007Photomultiplier Tubes Basics and Applications (3rd Ed.) (Hamamatsu:Hamamatsu Photonics K. K. Electron Tube Division) p45
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