Accepted
, , Received Date: 2025-03-03
Abstract +
Based on the basic principles of quantum mechanics, quantum key distribution (QKD) provides unconditional security for long-distance communication. However, existing QKD with relevant source protocols have limited tolerance for source correlation, which greatly reduces the key generation rate and limits the secure transmission distance, thereby limiting their practical deployment. In this work, we propose an improved QKD with correlated source protocol to overcome these limitations by discarding the traditional loss-tolerant security frameworks. Our approach adopts the standard BB84 protocol for the security analysis, under the assumption that the source correlation has a bounded range and characterized inner product of the states. We theoretically analyze the performance of the improved protocol at different levels of source correlation and channel loss. Numerical simulations show that our protocol achieves a much higher secret key rate and longer transmission distance than traditional schemes. In the case of typical parameters and 0 dB loss, our protocol achieves about 1.5－3 times improvement in secret key rate. Additionally, the maximum tolerable loss is enhanced by about 2－6 dB. This highlights a promising direction for enhancing the robustness and practicality of QKD with correlated sources systems, paving the way for their deployment in real-world quantum communication networks.
, , Received Date: 2025-04-30
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, , Received Date: 2025-04-03
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Rare-earth elements possess unique atomic structures characterized by multiple unpaired 4f orbital electrons in inner shells, high atomic magnetic moments, and strong spin-orbit coupling. These attributes endow them with rich electronic energy levels, enabling them to form compounds with different valence states and coordination environments. Consequently, rare-earth materials typically exhibit excellent magnetic properties and complex magnetic domain structures, making them critical for the development of high-tech industries. The intricate magnetic configurations, different types of magnetic coupling, and direct/indirect magnetic exchange interactions in these materials not only facilitate the development of novel functional devices but also pose significant challenges to fundamental research. With the rapid advancement of data mining techniques, the emergence of big data and artificial intelligence provides researchers with a new method to efficiently analyze vast experimental and computational datasets, thereby accelerating the exploration and development of rare-earth magnetic materials. This work focuses on rare-earth permanent magnetic materials, rare-earth magnetocaloric materials, and rare-earth magnetostrictive materials, detailing the application progress of data mining techniques in property prediction, composition and process optimization, and microstructural analysis. This work also delves into the current challenges and future trends, aiming to provide a theoretical foundation for deepening the integration of data mining technologies with rare-earth magnetic material research.
, , Received Date: 2025-01-16
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, , Received Date: 2025-04-22
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High-entropy alloy (HEA) microfibers exhibit promising prospects in microscale high-tech applications due to their exceptional mechanical properties and stability. However, the strength-plasticity tradeoff largely hinders their further industrial applications. Heat treatment can optimize the mechanical properties of HEA microfibers. However,the traditional heat treatment (CHT) faces challenges in accurately adjusting the microstructures in a short period of time, while also being prone to grain coarsening, which can affect performance. In this study, an electric current treatment (ECT) technique is used to finely modulate the properties of cold-drawn CoCrFeNi high-entropy alloy microfibers on a microscale (~70 μm in diameter), the effects of thermal and athermal effects during ECT on microstructure and mechanical properties are systematically investigated through electron back scatter diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and synchrotron radiation. A model of recrystallization, nucleation and growth of HEA microfibers is established. Compared with CHT, the synergistic effects of electron wind force and Joule heating during ECT significantly accelerate recrystallization kinetics, yielding finer and more homogeneous grains with a great decrease in dislocation density, and finally lead to better mechanical properties. The ECT-processed HEA microfibers achieve a yield strength in a range from 400 to 2033 MPa and a tensile elongation reaching 53%, which are much higher than those of CHT samples. These results demonstrate that the ECT is effective for optimizing the microstructure and properties of HEA microfibers, and can also provide both a theoretical foundation and technical guidance for fabricating high-performance metallic microfibers.
, , Received Date: 2025-04-22
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Topologically protected waveguides have attracted growing interest due to their robustness against disorder and defects. In parallel, the advent of non-Hermitian physics—with its inherent gain-and-loss mechanisms—has introduced new tools for manipulating wave localization and transport. However, most attempts to combine non-Hermitian effects with topological systems impose the non-Hermitian skin effect (NHSE) uniformly on all modes, lacking selectivity for topological states.In this work, we propose a scheme that realizes a topologically selective NHSE by combining sub-symmetry-protected boundary modes with long-range, non-reciprocal couplings. In a modified Su-Schrieffer-Heeger (SSH) chain, we analytically demonstrate that even in a spectrum densely populated with bulk states, a robust zero-energy edge mode can be preserved while the NHSE is selectively applied to the trivial bulk modes, achieving spatial separation between topological and bulk states. By tuning the long-range couplings, we observe a non-Hermitian phase transition in the complex energy spectrum: it evolves from a closed loop (circle), to an arc, and then to a loop with reversed winding direction. These transitions correspond to a leftward NHSE, the disappearance of the NHSE, and a rightward NHSE, respectively. Calculating the generalized Brillouin zone (GBZ), we confirm this transition by observing the GBZ crossing the unit circle, indicating a change in the NHSE direction.We further extend our model to a two-dimensional higher-order SSH lattice, where selective non-Hermitian modulation enables clear spatial separation between topological corner states and bulk modes. To quantify this, we compute the local density of states (LDOS) in the complex energy plane for site 0 (a topologically localized corner) and site 288 (a region exhibiting NHSE). The LDOS comparison reveals that the topological states are primarily localized at site 0, while bulk states affected by NHSE accumulate at site 288.To validate the theoretical predictions, we perform finite-element simulations of optical resonator arrays employing whispering-gallery modes. By tuning the coupling distances and incorporating gain/loss through refractive index engineering, we replicate the modified SSH model and confirm the selective localization of topological and bulk modes.Our results demonstrate a robust method for the selective excitation and spatial control of topological states in non-Hermitian systems, providing a foundation for future low-crosstalk, high-stability topological photonic devices.
, , Received Date: 2025-01-16
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This paper adopts the phase-field based lattice Boltzmann (LB) method to study the dynamic behavior of soluble surfactant-laden droplets in a uniform electric field. Firstly, two benchmark problems including the surfactant concentration distribution of static droplet and the deformation of leaky dielectric droplet in an electric field, are used to test the capacity of LB method. Then, we focuse on investigating the deformation, breakup, and coalescence behaviors of surfactant-laden droplets in an electric field. The results show that: (1) For the deformation behavior, the single droplet exhibits two distinct deformation modes: prolate and oblate shapes. Higher electric capillary number and bulk surfactant concentration both lead to greater droplet deformation. (2) For the breakup behavior, the single droplet exhibits two distinct breakup modes: filamentous and conical jetting breakup. The droplet with surfactants is more like to breakup. More specifically, surfactants reduce the retraction degree of the main droplet after filamentous breakup, while it increase the number of satellite droplets formed at the main droplet ends after jetting breakup. (3) For the coalescence behavior, the double droplets exhibit two distinct processes: deformation coalescence and attractive coalescence. A higher electric capillary number facilitates droplet coalescence. Surfactants promote deformation coalescence while retarding attractive coalescence, but the promotional effect dominates. Consequently, a higher bulk surfactant concentration enhances the propensity for the droplet coalescence.
, , Received Date: 2025-02-24
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Cavity quantum electrodynamics (QED) provides a fundamental platform for implementing light-matter interactions at the single-particle level, having been extensively investigated in fundamental physics and quantum information. Recent advances in parametric squeezing techniques have demonstrated remarkable capabilities for exponentially enhancing coherent coupling between an atom and a cavity. However, the full extent of manipulating quantum optical phenomena using these techniques still requires further exploration. This work systematically investigates the effects of optical parametric amplification on single-photon excited atom-cavity systems within a parametric driven cavity. In the proposed model, optical parametric amplification converts the driving photons into a squeezed cavity mode, which can enhance the atom-cavity interaction to the strong coupling region. Through analytical derivation of atomic and cavity radiation spectra, we demonstrate that the optical parametric amplification can lead to the splitting of atomic radiation spectra, but produces negligible effects on spectral intensity. Conversely, the cavity transmission spectrum exhibits both pronounced splitting and nonlinear intensity amplification. Notably, when driving field intensity approaches critical region, the intensity of the cavity radiation spectrum can be significantly enhanced. The underlying mechanism originates from parametric driving amplification, which converts the driving light into a squeezed cavity mode. When this squeezed mode is mapped back to the original mode of the cavity through Bogoliubov squeezing transformation, the pump photons in the squeezed cavity mode are converted into the radiation spectrum of the cavity, which leads to the amplification of the cavity radiation spectrum. This parametric enhancement protocol not only deepens fundamental understanding of engineered light-matter interactions but also establishes a practical framework for improving single-photon detection sensitivity in cavity-based quantum systems. These findings hold promising implications for quantum sensing and information processing applications.
, , Received Date: 2025-04-11
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Channel proteins act as precise molecular regulators of transmembrane transport, a fundamental process essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis. These proteins dynamically modulate their functional states through conformational changes, forming the structural basis for complex physiological processes such as signal transduction and energy metabolism. Single-molecule fluorescence spectroscopy and single-channel patch-clamp electrophysiology represent two cornerstone techniques in modern biophysics: the former enables molecular-resolution analysis of structural dynamics, while the latter provides direct functional characterization of ion channel activity. Despite their complementary capabilities, integrating these techniques to simultaneously monitor protein conformational dynamics and functional states remains technically challenging, primarily due to the strong autofluorescence background inherent to single-molecule imaging in cellular environments. To address this limitation, we developed a spatially selective optical excitation system capable of localized illumination. By integrating tunable optical modules, we generated a dynamically adjustable excitation field on living cell membranes, achieving precise spatial registration between the excitation volume and the patch-clamp recording site. This system achieved submicron-scale alignment between the excitation zone and the micropipette contact area, enabling simultaneous electrophysiological recording and background-suppressed fluorescence detection within the patched membrane domain. Experimental validation demonstrated the system’s ability to perform single-molecule fluorescence imaging and trajectory analysis within designated observation areas, with imaging resolution inversely correlated with the size of the illuminated region. Optimized optical design allowed for precise excitation targeting while minimizing background illumination, resulting in high signal-to-noise ratio single-molecule imaging with significantly reduced photodamage. Integration with cell-attached patch-clamp configurations established a dual-modality platform for synchronized acquisition of single-molecule fluorescence images and single-channel recordings. Validation using mechanosensitive mPiezo1 channels confirmed the system’s compatibility with single-channel recordings, demonstrating that optical imaging induces no detectable interference with electrophysiological signal acquisition. This methodology overcomes longstanding challenges in the concurrent application of single-molecule imaging and electrophysiological techniques in live-cell environments. It establishes a novel experimental framework for investigating structure-function relationships in channel proteins and membrane-associated molecular machines through spatially coordinated optoelectronic measurements on live-cell membranes, with broad applicability in molecular biophysics and studies of transmembrane transport mechanisms.
, , Received Date: 2025-04-12
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Droplet microfluidics technology possesses significant potential applications in chemical analysis, biological detection, and material preparation. Passive droplet generation method can rapidly achieve droplet formation by using the geometric characteristics of microchannels and shear flow. As a typical structure, the influences of fluid parameters and symmetry differences in cross microchannels on the droplet generation process have not been fully studied. Therefore, this paper uses the lattice Boltzmann method to numerically simulate droplet generation in symmetric and asymmetric cross microchannels, thereby systematically analyzing the action mechanisms of capillary number, viscosity ratio, and microchannel symmetry. First, this study verifies the computational reliability of the numerical model through two classic cases, i.e. the droplet deformation under planar shear flow and stationary droplets on ideal solid surfaces. Then, this work focuses on studying the three flow stages in symmetric cross microchannels, i.e. interface immersion stage, shear-induced breakup stage, and the droplet migration and coalescence stage, and analyzes the synergistic mechanism of capillary number and viscosity ratio. In the symmetric cross microchannel structure, the capillary number is the main factor determining the droplet size in the cross microchannel. With the increase of the capillary number, the surface tension gradually weakens, causing the liquid bridge at the droplet neck to break more easily and generate droplets. In contrast, the effect of the viscosity ratio on the droplet size is relatively small, but it can suppress the generation of sub-droplets and improve the uniformity of droplets by adjusting the viscous resistance of the continuous phase. On this basis, this study further quantifies the influence of microchannel symmetry on the droplet generation process in cross microchannels. In the asymmetric cross microchannel structure, the microchannel deviation breaks the flow symmetry and weakens the cooperative shearing effect of the oil-phase fluid on the immersion structure of the water-phase fluid. When the microchannel deviates within the centerline range of the water-phase microchannel, the droplet size increases significantly with the increase of the microchannel deviation. This is mainly because the oil-phase fluid on the side far from the deviation first squeezes the immersion structure of the water-phase fluid, and then the oil-phase fluid near the deviation side exerts a secondary squeeze on the immersion structure, causing the neck liquid bridge of the immersion structure to continuously elongate and the shear position to shift along the microchannel deviation direction. When the microchannel deviation exceeds the centerline position of the water-phase microchannel, the interface fracture of the water-phase immersion structure mainly relies on the double squeezing effect of the oil-phase fluid and the surface tension of water-phase fluid, and the droplet size tends to be stable. The relevant research results lay a theoretical foundation for microchannel design and fluid parameter regulation in droplet microfluidics and thus further promote the application and development of droplet microfluidic technology.
, , Received Date: 2025-03-18
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, , Received Date: 2024-08-28
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Arthropods, including spiders and mantises, can maintain their body stability on shaking surfaces, such as spiderwebs or leaves. This impressive stability can be attributed to the specific geometric shape of their limbs, which exhibit an M-shaped structure. Inspired by this geometry, this work proposes an arthropod-limb-inspired M-shaped structure for low-frequency vibration isolation. First, the design method of the M-shaped quasi-zero-stiffness (QZS) structure is presented. A static analysis of potential energy, restoring force, and equivalent stiffness is conducted, showing that the M-shaped structure enables a horizontal linear spring to generate nonlinear stiffness in the vertical direction. More importantly, this nonlinear stiffness effectively compensates for the negative stiffness in large-displacement responses, thereby achieving a wider quasi-zero-stiffness region than the conventional three-spring-based QZS structure. Subsequently, the harmonic balance method is employed to derive approximate analytical solutions for the M-shaped QZS structure, which are well validated through numerical simulation. A comparison between the proposed M-shaped QZS structure and the conventional three-spring-based QZS structure is performed. Results show that the M-shaped QZS structure is advantageous for reducing both the cut-in isolation frequency and the resonance frequency. In particular, under large excitation or small damping conditions, the performance improvement of the M-shaped QZS structure in terms of reducing the resonance frequency and maximum response becomes more pronounced. The underlying mechanism behind this feature is primarily attributed to the expanded QZS region induced by the M-shaped structure. Finally, since the M-shaped structures vary among different arthropods, the effect of the geometry of M-shaped structures on low-frequency vibration performance is investigated. Interestingly, a trade-off between vibration isolation performance and loading mass is observed. As the M-shaped structure becomes flatter and the QZS region expands, the cut-in isolation frequency, resonance frequency/peak, and loading mass all decrease. This occurs because a flatter M-shaped structure leads to a reduction in the equivalent stiffness generated by the horizontal stiffness. Therefore, as the loading mass capacity decreases, the low-frequency vibration isolation performance is enhanced. This novel finding provides a reasonable explanation for why most arthropods possess many pairs of limbs, allowing the loading mass to be distributed while achieving excellent low-frequency vibration isolation.
, , Received Date: 2025-04-07
Abstract +
Circular cross-section plasma is the most basic form of tokamak plasma and the fundamental configuration for magnetic confinement fusion experiments. Based on the HL-2A limiter discharge experiments, the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) equilibrium and MHD instability of circular cross-section tokamak plasmas are investigated in this work. The results show that when $ {q}_{0}=0.95 $, the internal kink mode of $ m/n=1/1 $ is always unstable. The increase in plasma $ \beta $ (the ratio of thermal pressure to magnetic pressure) can lead to the appearance of external kink modes. The combination of axial safety factor $ {q}_{0} $ and edge safety factor $ {q}_{{\mathrm{a}}} $ determines the equilibrium configuration of the plasma and also affects the MHD stability of the equilibrium, but its growth rate is also related to the size of $ \beta $. Under the condition of $ {q}_{{\mathrm{a}}} > 2 $ and $ {q}_{0} $ slightly greater than $ 1 $, the internal kink mode and surface kink mode can be easily stabilized. However the plasma becomes unstable again and the instability intensity increases as $ {q}_{0} $ continues to increase when $ {q}_{0} $ exceeds $ 1 $. As the poloidal specific pressure ($ {\beta }_{{\mathrm{p}}} $) increases, the MHD instability develops, the equilibrium configuration of MHD elongates laterally, and the Shafranov displacement increases, which in turn has the effect on suppressing instability. Calculations have shown that the maximum $ \beta $ value imposed by the ideal MHD mode in a plasma with free boundary in tokamak experiments is proportional to the normalized current $ {I}_{{\mathrm{N}}} $ ($ {I}_{{\mathrm{N}}}={I}_{{\mathrm{p}}}\left({\mathrm{M}}{\mathrm{A}}\right)/a\left({\mathrm{m}}\right){B}_{0}\left({\mathrm{T}}\right) $), and the maximum specific pressure $ \beta \left({\mathrm{m}}{\mathrm{a}}{\mathrm{x}}\right) $ is calibrated to be $ ~2.01{I}_{{\mathrm{N}}},{\mathrm{ }}{\mathrm{i}}. {\mathrm{e}}. $ $ \beta \left({\mathrm{m}}{\mathrm{a}}{\mathrm{x}}\right)~2.01{I}_{{\mathrm{N}}} $. The operational $ \beta $ limit of HL-2A circular cross-section plasma is approximately $ {\beta }_{{\mathrm{N}}}^{{\mathrm{c}}}\approx 2.0 $. Too high a value of $ {q}_{0} $ is not conducive to MHD stability and leads the $ \beta $ limit value to decrease. When $ {q}_{0}=1.3 $, we obtain a maximum value of $ {\beta }_{{\mathrm{N}}} $ of approximately $ 1.8 $. Finally, based on the existing circular cross-section plasma, some key factors affecting the operational $ \beta $ and the relationship between the achievable high $ \beta $ limit and the calculated ideal $ \beta $ limit are discussed.
,
Abstract +
Neutral atom arrays have emerged as one of the most promising physical platforms for quantum computing and quantum information processing due to their precise single-atom control and tunable strong interactions. The acousto-optic deflector (AOD) is a key device for constructing and manipulating neutral atom arrays, enabling rapid and high-precision atom trapping and arrangement. However, TeO2-based anomalous Bragg AODs still face challenges in practical applications, such as unclear broadband diffraction conditions, polarization sensitivity, and low efficiency, which limit their performance in multi-degree-of-freedom control.
This study investigates the acousto-optic effects in AOD and acousto-optic modulator (AOM), revealing their differences in diffraction efficiency, polarization characteristics, and applications. By adjusting the azimuthal angle of the AOD, we measured the efficiency and RF bandwidth of the ±1st-order diffracted beams under horizontal and vertical polarization incident light, proposed an experimental method to determine the broadband diffraction center frequency and diffraction order. Additionally, we systematically characterized the operational parameters of AOM, clarifying their performance mechanisms and application-specific differences compared to AOD. The main conclusions are as follows:
(I) The beam deflection performance of an AOD is closely related to the ultrasonic mode or acoustic velocity: a lower sound velocity results in a larger deflection angles. For TeO2 crystals, when a shear wave propagates along the [110] axis (sound velocity: 0.617 km/s), the diffraction angle reaches 0.842 mrad/MHz (laser wavelength: 532 nm). In contrast, when TeO2 is used in AOM with a longitudinal wave along the [001] axis (sound velocity: 4.26 km/s), the diffraction angle decreases to 0.133 mrad/MHz under the same wavelength.
(II) To achieve high diffraction efficiency and a broad operational frequency range, the AOD must satisfy the phase-matching condition for anomalous Bragg diffraction. Taking the AOD (model: AA DTSX-250) as an example, it operates in a unidirectional incident mode: when horizontally polarized light (extro-ordinary light) is incident, only the -1st-order diffracted beam satisfies the anomalous Bragg condition. The beam undergoes polarization conversion to vertically polarized light (ordinary light), enabling high-efficiency broadband deflection (center frequency: 82 MHz, bandwidth: 45 MHz). To support future twodimensional deflection implementations, the input and output surfaces of the TeO2 crystal are fabricated with slight bevel angles, ensuring collinearity between the -1st-order diffracted beam and the incident beam at the center frequency. In other cases — (i) +1st-order diffraction of horizontally polarized light and (ii) ±1st-order diffraction of vertically polarized light — the anomalous Bragg condition is not met. These beams retain their original polarization and allow only narrowband deflection.
These results demonstrate that AODs, leveraging anomalous acoustooptic effects, can achieve high diffraction efficiency, wide frequency tuning ranges, and large deflection angles, making them suitable for high-speed, high-precision beam steering applications. In contrast, AOMs utilize normal acousto-optic effects to perform rapid modulation of beam intensity, frequency, and phase, and are widely used in laser communication and optical fiber transmission. This study provides a detailed technical reference for understanding the operational principles of AODs and their applications in programmable neutral atom arrays.
This study investigates the acousto-optic effects in AOD and acousto-optic modulator (AOM), revealing their differences in diffraction efficiency, polarization characteristics, and applications. By adjusting the azimuthal angle of the AOD, we measured the efficiency and RF bandwidth of the ±1st-order diffracted beams under horizontal and vertical polarization incident light, proposed an experimental method to determine the broadband diffraction center frequency and diffraction order. Additionally, we systematically characterized the operational parameters of AOM, clarifying their performance mechanisms and application-specific differences compared to AOD. The main conclusions are as follows:
(I) The beam deflection performance of an AOD is closely related to the ultrasonic mode or acoustic velocity: a lower sound velocity results in a larger deflection angles. For TeO2 crystals, when a shear wave propagates along the [110] axis (sound velocity: 0.617 km/s), the diffraction angle reaches 0.842 mrad/MHz (laser wavelength: 532 nm). In contrast, when TeO2 is used in AOM with a longitudinal wave along the [001] axis (sound velocity: 4.26 km/s), the diffraction angle decreases to 0.133 mrad/MHz under the same wavelength.
(II) To achieve high diffraction efficiency and a broad operational frequency range, the AOD must satisfy the phase-matching condition for anomalous Bragg diffraction. Taking the AOD (model: AA DTSX-250) as an example, it operates in a unidirectional incident mode: when horizontally polarized light (extro-ordinary light) is incident, only the -1st-order diffracted beam satisfies the anomalous Bragg condition. The beam undergoes polarization conversion to vertically polarized light (ordinary light), enabling high-efficiency broadband deflection (center frequency: 82 MHz, bandwidth: 45 MHz). To support future twodimensional deflection implementations, the input and output surfaces of the TeO2 crystal are fabricated with slight bevel angles, ensuring collinearity between the -1st-order diffracted beam and the incident beam at the center frequency. In other cases — (i) +1st-order diffraction of horizontally polarized light and (ii) ±1st-order diffraction of vertically polarized light — the anomalous Bragg condition is not met. These beams retain their original polarization and allow only narrowband deflection.
These results demonstrate that AODs, leveraging anomalous acoustooptic effects, can achieve high diffraction efficiency, wide frequency tuning ranges, and large deflection angles, making them suitable for high-speed, high-precision beam steering applications. In contrast, AOMs utilize normal acousto-optic effects to perform rapid modulation of beam intensity, frequency, and phase, and are widely used in laser communication and optical fiber transmission. This study provides a detailed technical reference for understanding the operational principles of AODs and their applications in programmable neutral atom arrays.
TDOA/DOA hybrid location method of partial discharge combined with blind signal separation algorithm
, , Received Date: 2025-03-11
Abstract +
To address the technical bottleneck of decoupling spatiotemporal feature, high hardware costs, and high computational complexity in ultrasonic detection of partial discharge (PD) in electrical equipment, this paper proposes a TDOA/DOA hybrid localization method based on kernel principal component analysis (KPCA) and modified noncircular FastICA (mnc-FastICA). By integrating spatiotemporal feature extraction with intelligent optimization mechanisms, this method achieves high-precision localization by using a small-scale sensor array. The key innovations are as follows. First, a KPCA-assisted pseudo-whitening preprocessing framework is constructed by using polynomial kernel mapping for nonlinear signal dimensionality reduction, which preserves the correlation between time delay (TDOA) and direction-of-arrival (DOA) features while suppressing environmental noise. Second, after the blind separation of ultrasonic signals via the mnc-FastICA algorithm, TDOA/DOA parameters are synchronously extracted through a combination of the generalized cross-correlation (GCC) method and array manifold analysis. Finally, a maximum likelihood estimation model integrating dual parameters is established, and the African vulture optimization algorithm (AVOA) is introduced to accelerate global optimal solution convergence. Experimental results demonstrate that with a compact hardware configuration of two orthogonal arrays (8 sensors in total), the proposed method achieves a TDOA estimation error of 2.34%, DOA estimation accuracy better than 2°, and localization errors as low as 1.54 cm. This approach effectively resolves the discrepancies among spatiotemporal feature coupling, hardware cost, and localization accuracy in PD detection, providing a novel solution for condition monitoring of electrical equipment.
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