Research progress of broadband photodetectors based on two-dimensional materials

CUI Yueying; SONG Junming; ZHAO Weiwei; YANG Fang; LIU Hongwei; NI Zhenhua; LU Junpeng

doi:10.7498/aps.74.20251115

Abstract
The increasing demands for high-speed imaging, aerospace, and optical communication have driven in-depth research on broadband photodetectors with high sensitivity and fast response. Two-dimensional (2D) materials have atomic-scale thickness, tunable bandgaps, and excellent carrier transport properties, making them ideal candidates for next-generation optoelectronics. However, their limited light absorption and intrinsic recombination losses remain key challenges. This paper provides an overview of recent progress of 2D-material-based broadband photodetectors. First, the fundamental optoelectronic properties of 2D materials, including bandgap modulation, carrier dynamics, and light–matter interactions, are discussed to clarify their broadband detection potential. Representative material systems, such as narrow-band gap semiconductors, 2D topological materials, and perovskites, are summarized, showing the detection ability from the ultraviolet to the mid-infrared regions. To overcome intrinsic limitations, four optimization strategies are highlighted: heterostructure engineering for efficient charge separation and extended spectral response; defect engineering to introduce mid-gap states and enhance sub-bandgap absorption; optical field enhancement through plasmonic nanostructures and optical cavities to improve responsivity; strain engineering for reversible band structure tuning, particularly suited for flexible devices. These strategies have achieved significant improvements in responsivity, detectivity, and bandwidth, with some devices implementing ultrabroadband detection and multifunctionality. In summary, 2D materials and their hybrids have shown great potential in broadband photodetection, with progress made in material innovation and device architecture optimization. The reviewed strategies—heterostructure integration, defect modulation, optical field enhancement, and strain engineering—collectively demonstrate the different ways of overcoming intrinsic limitations and improving device performance. Looking ahead to the future, the reasonable combination of these methods is expected to further expand the detection window, improve sensitivity, and achieve multifunctional operations, thereby paving the way for the multifunctional applications of the next-generation broadband photodetectors in imaging, sensing, and optoelectronic systems

Keywords:
two-dimensional materials /

broadband photodetectors /

heterostructure integration /

regulatory strategies
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图 1 典型二维材料及其带隙范围^[11]. 图中展示了多种二维材料及其晶体结构的侧视图, 并按带隙大小从左至右排列. 每种材料下方的线条表示其从块体到单层的带隙变化范围. 黑线表示单层带隙大于块体带隙, 红线则表示相反情况. 左侧灰框中为零带隙或近零带隙的金属或半金属材料. 下方带隙/波长坐标轴用于显示各材料对应的光谱响应能力

Figure 1. Typical 2D materials and their bandgap ranges. Figure shows side views of a variety of 2D materials and their crystal structures, arranged from left to right by bandgap size. The lines below each material indicate the range of bandgap variation from bulk to monolayer. The black line indicates that the monolayer bandgap is larger than the bulk bandgap, and the red line indicates the opposite. The gray box on the left is a metal or semimetal material with zero or near-zero bandgap. The bandgap/wavelength coordinate axis below is used to show the spectral response capability of each material. Reproduced from Ref. [11], with the permission of Springer Nature.

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图 2 基于二维材料的复合结构示意图以及实例　(a) 二维材料与其他材料复合示意图^[44]; (b) 全二维材料复合结构^[45]; (c) 二维材料与体材料复合结构^[46]; (d) 二维材料与量子点材料复合体系^[47]

Figure 2. Schematic diagrams of composite structures based on two-dimensional materials and examples: (a) Schematic diagram of two-dimensional materials composited with other materials (Reproduced from Ref. [44], with the permission of Springer Nature); (b) all two-dimensional material composite structure (Reproduced from Ref. [45], with the permission of John Wiley and Sons); (c) two-dimensional material and bulk material composite structure (Reproduced from Ref. [46], with the permission of American Chemical Society); (d) two-dimensional material and quantum dot material composite system(Reproduced from Ref. [47], with the permission of American Chemical Society).

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图 3 (a) 黑磷的晶体结构示意图和固有黑磷、砷(As)元素掺杂、碳(C)元素掺杂以及通过电场和应变调谐的的中红外光响应^[53]; (b) 黑磷带隙的层数依赖性^[54]; (c) 黑磷光电探测器的光响应率^[55]; (d), (e) 砷掺杂黑磷光电探测器的示意图以及其光响应度和外量子效率^[56]

Figure 3. (a) Schematic diagram of the crystal structure of BP and mid-infrared optical response of pristine BP, arsenic (As) element-doped, carbon (C) element-doped, and electric field and strain-tuned BP (Reproduced from Ref. [53], with the permission of John Wiley and Sons); (b) layer dependence of the bandgap of BP (Reproduced from Ref. [54], with the permission of American Physical Society); (c) photoresponsivity of BP photodetector. (Reproduced from Ref. [55], with the permission of Springer Nature); (d), (e) schematic diagram of arsenic-doped BP photodetector and its photoresponsivity and EQE (Reproduced from Ref. [56], with the permission of the authors).

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图 4 (a) PdSe₂光电探测器的结构示意图以及多层PdSe₂的吸收光谱^[62]; (b) In₂Se₃光电探测器的结构示意图及其在不同波长下的响应度^[63]; (c) SnS光电探测器的结构示意图以及SnS薄膜的吸收光谱^[64]

Figure 4. (a) Schematic diagram of the PdSe₂ photodetector structure and absorption spectrum of multilayer PdSe₂ (Reproduced from Ref. [62], with the permission of John Wiley and Sons); (b) schematic diagram of the In₂Se₃ photodetector structure and its responsivity R at different wavelengths (Reproduced from Ref. [63], with the permission of IOP Publishing); (c) schematic diagram of the SnS photodetector structure and absorption spectrum of SnS film (Reproduced from Ref. [64], with the permission of IOP Publishing).

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图 5 (a), (b) 拓扑绝缘体^[67]和拓扑半金属(狄拉克半金属、外尔半金属和节点线半金属)^[68]的能带结构示意图; (c) 各种拓扑绝缘体的带隙值及其相应的检测范围^[67]; (d) 部分二维层状拓扑半金属的检测范围^[68]

Figure 5. (a), (b) Schematic diagrams of energy band structures of topological insulator (Reproduced from Ref. [67], with the permission of Elsevier) and topological semimetals (Dirac semimetal, Weyl semimetal, and nodal line semimetal) (Reproduced from Ref. [68], with the permission of John Wiley and Sons); (c) bandgap values of various topological insulators (TI) and their corresponding detection ranges (Reproduced from Ref. [67], with the permission of Elsevier); (d) detection ranges of some 2D layered topological semimetals (LTSM) (Reproduced from Ref. [68], with the permission of John Wiley and Sons).

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图 6 (a) 二维钙钛矿的结构示意图^[82]; (b), (c) 在钙钛矿材料(CH₃(CH₂)₃NH₃)₂(CH₃NH₃)_n–1Pb_nI_3n+1中, 通过改变Pb的含量(n)可以调控其带隙大小^[83]; (c) 钙钛矿材料(C₄H₉NH₃)_n(CH₃NH₃)_n–1Pb_nI_3n+1的迁移率和电导随量子阱厚度的变化, 表明其潜在的高光电转换效率^[84]

Figure 6. (a) Schematic diagram of the structure of two-dimensional perovskite (Reproduced from Ref. [82], with the permission of Elsevier); (b), (c) in perovskite material (CH₃(CH₂)₃NH₃)₂(CH₃NH₃)_n–1Pb_nI_3n+1, the bandgap can be tuned by varying the Pb content (n) (Reproduced from Ref. [83], with the permission of Springer Nature); (c) mobility and conductance of perovskite material (C₄H₉NH₃)_n(CH₃NH₃)_n–1Pb_nI_3n+1 as a function of quantum well thickness, demonstrating its potential for high photoelectric conversion efficiency (Reproduced from Ref. [84], with the permission of American Chemical Society).

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图 7 (a) MoSe₂/WSe₂ 异质结的器件结构与能带结构示意图^[89]; (b) MoTe₂/ReS₂ 异质结构在不同波长下的响应度以及其器件结构与能带结构示意图^[90]; (c) 石墨烯与WS₂-WSe₂超结构的器件结构与能带结构示意图^[91]

Figure 7. (a) Schematic diagrams of device structure and energy band structure of MoSe₂/WSe₂ heterostructure (Reproduced from Ref. [89], with the permission of John Wiley and Sons); (b) responsivity of MoTe₂/ReS₂ heterostructure at different wavelengths and schematic diagrams of device structure and energy band structure (Reproduced from Ref. [90], with the permission of American Chemical Society); (c) schematic diagrams of device structure and energy band structure of graphene and WS₂-WSe₂ superlattice (Reproduced from Ref. [91], with the permission of American Chemical Society).

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图 8 (a)—(c) ReS₂/MoS₂量子点异质结构的示意图及其在不同探测波长下的响应度和能带结构示意图^[92]; (d), (e) PbI₂/Sb₂S₃纳米线的器件图及其在不同探测波长下的响应度^[93]; (f), (g) MoS₂/GaN异质结构的示意图及其在不同探测波长下的响应度^[94]

Figure 8. (a)–(c) Schematic diagram of ReS₂/MoS₂ quantum dot heterostructure and its responsivity at different detection wavelengths and energy band structure diagram (Reproduced from Ref. [92], with the permission of American Chemical Society); (d), (e) device diagram of PbI₂/Sb₂S₃ nanowires and their responsivity at different detection wavelengths (Reproduced from Ref. [93], with the permission of Royal Society of Chemistry); (f), (g) schematic diagram of MoS₂/GaN heterostructure and its responsivity at different detection wavelengths (Reproduced from Ref. [94], with the permission of American Chemical Society).

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图 9 (a) 超宽带WS₂/AlO_x/Ge异质结光电探测器的结构和能带示意图, 以及其在不同波长下的比探测率^[100]; (b) 二维α-Ga₂Se₃器件结构示意图及其在不同探测波长和暗态条件下的I–V特性曲线, 以及相应的光响应度和开关比^[101]; (c) 二维LiInP₂Se₆器件结构示意图以及其532 nm下的比探测率和其他波长下的光响应^[102]

Figure 9. (a) Structure and energy band diagram of ultra-broadband WS₂/AlO_x/Ge heterostructure photodetector and its specific detectivity at different wavelengths (Reproduced from Ref. [100], with the permission of American Chemical Society); (b) schematic diagram of two-dimensional α-Ga₂Se₃ device structure and its I-V characteristic curves under different detection wavelengths and dark conditions, along with the corresponding photoresponsivity and on/off ratio (Reproduced from Ref. [101], with the permission of John Wiley and Sons); (c) schematic diagram of two-dimensional LiInP₂Se₆ device structure and its specific detectivity at 532 nm and photoresponse at other wavelengths (Reproduced from Ref. [102], with the permission of American Chemical Society).

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图 10 (a) 引入金纳米颗粒的p-MoS₂/n-ZnO异质结结构示意图及其在不同响应波长下的性能提升对比^[106]; (b) 单壁碳纳米管/石墨烯异质结三维光电探测器结构示意图及其在不同探测波长下的响应度^[109]

Figure 10. (a) Schematic diagram of p-MoS₂/n-ZnO heterostructure with incorporated gold nanoparticles and performance enhancement comparison at different response wavelengths (Reproduced from Ref. [106], with the permission of Elsevier); (b) schematic diagram of single-walled carbon nanotube/graphene heterostructure three-dimensional photodetector structure and its responsivity at different detection wavelengths (Reproduced from Ref. [109], with the permission of RSC Pub).

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图 11 (a), (b) 不同应变条件下光电流变化的时间响应, 以及在紫外和可见光照射下光响应度随应变变化的关系图^[114]; (c), (d) MoS₂/Sb₂Te₃异质结的结构示意图及其在不用应变下的响应度变化^[115]

Figure 11. (a), (b) Temporal response of photocurrent changes under different strain conditions and the relationship between photoresponsivity and strain under ultraviolet and visible light illumination (Reproduced from Ref. [114], with the permission of IOP Publishing); (c), (d) schematic diagram of MoS₂/Sb₂Te₃ heterostructure and its responsivity variation under different strains (Reproduced from Ref. [115], with the permission of MDPI).

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表 1 二维拓扑材料及其异质结构的光电性能

Table 1. Optoelectronic properties of two-dimensional topological materials and their heterostructures.

材料	探测波长	比探测率	响应度	参考文献
材料	λ/nm	D*/Jones	R/(A·W^–1)	参考文献
Bi₂Te₃	325—1500	3.8×10⁹	74	[69]
SnTe	405—3800	—	3.75	[70]
Pb_1–xSn_xSe	375—2000	1.14×10¹²	0.21	[75]
SnTe/Si	254—1550	8.4×10¹²	0.128	[76]
Bi₂Te₃/Si	370—118000	2.5×10¹¹	11	[77]
Graphene/Bi₂Te₃/GaAs	405—4500	3.1×10¹²	0.67	[78]
PtTe₂	0.02—0.3 THz	—	1.98	[73]
T_d-MoTe₂	325—566000	—	3.8×10^–3	[74]
TaIrTe₄	0.1—10 THz	—	18	[79]
NbIrTe₄/Graphene	0.02—0.3 THz	—	264.6 V/W	[80]
TaIrTe₄/WSe₂	405—808	3.09×10¹²	9.1	[81]

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